Environmental Risks Associated with Heavy Metal Contamination in Soil, Water and Plants in Urban and Periurban Agriculture
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.24154/jhs.v3i1.589Keywords:
Environmental Risk, Heavy Metal Contamination, Periurban AgricultureAbstract
The India's population living in cities and urban areas has doubled to 27.8% since Independence. Our cities face enormous challenges of environmental pollution and health related problems. City authorities have often been reluctant to accept urban and periurban agriculture because of perceived health risks. Nevertheless, in most cities the world over, periurban agriculture is practiced on a substantial scale, despite prohibitive laws and regulations. Non-degradable pollutants added to the system through anthropogenic activities like heavy metals in air, soil, water and crops bother us more than others as these tend to bio-accumulate. Throughout history, heavy metal contamination has long plagued mankind - undermining intelligence and causing debasing behaviour. Toxicity of some of the heavy metals even leads to deficiency of essential metals like Zn, Cu, etc. in both human and animals. Climate, nutritional status, genetic predisposition, type of work and exposure level influence the intensity of impact on health. Permissible levels prescribed by different organizations differ because of differences in tolerance levels of people of different origins and differences in threat perception of the people. With our current level of knowledge a permanent and foolproof method to stop entry of heavy metals into the food chain is impossible. However, methods are available to reduce intensity of the effects. Alternative land use with crops not directly consumed by human beings and animals offers a better remedy to contain heavy metal entry into food chain. India has a wide ranging set of environmental laws that lay down norms for air, water, soil, wastes, etc. Legislative frame work has been developed in the belief that a policing model is sufficient. It does not go beyond that. Regulatory mechanisms may not be effective in isolated cases but are essential drivers to augment other approaches, by putting a "cap" on the level of degradation that is socially acceptable, as well as creating space for other, cleaner and more acceptable alternatives to be "viable".
References
Adhikari, Subhendu. 1993. Post-irrigation effect of sewage application on soil properties and vegetation in the North Eastern fringe of Calcutta. Ph.D. thesis, University of Calcutta, Kolkata
Adhikari, S.S., Gupta, K. and Banerjee, S. K. 1997. Long term effect of raw sewage application on the chemical composition of ground water. J. Ind. Soc. Soil Sci., 45:392-394
Adhikari, S., Mitra. A., Gupta, S. K. and Banerjee, S. K. 1998. Pollutant metal content of vegetables irrigated with sewage water. J. Ind. Soc. Soil Sci., 46: 153-155
Agarwal, R. 2006. Beyond environmental standards: from techno-centric to people-centric environmental
governance. In “Troubled times, Sustainable Development and Governance in the Age of Extremes”, pp 1-18. Sustainable Development Policy Institute, Islamabad.
AIDA . 1995. All India Distillery Association circular, June 1995, New Delhi, India. p 10.
Alloway, B. J. 1990. Heavy metals in soils (ed.). John Wiley and Sons. New York, 1990.
Anil Kumar, De. 2000. Environmental Chemistry 4 th edition. New Age International (P) Limited Publishers, New Delhi
Arora, B. R., Azad, A. S., Singh, B. and Sekhon, G. S. 1985. Pollution potential of municipal waste-waters of Ludhiana, Punjab. Ind. J. Ecol., 12: 1-7
Asami, T. 1981. In: Heavy metal pollution in soils of Japan ( K.Kitagishi and I Yamane eds.). Japan Scientific
Societies Press. Tokyo. pp.257-274
ATSDR, 1997. Toxicological profile for Nickel (update). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, U.S. Government Printing Office.
Awasthi, S. K. 2000. Prevention of Food Adulteration Act No. 37 of 1954. Central and State rules as amended for 1999.3rd ed., Ashoka Law House, New Delhi.
Azad, A. S., Sekhon, G. S. and Arora, B. R. 1989. Distribution of Cd, Ni and Co in sewage water irrigated soils. J. Ind. Soc. Soil Sci., 34: 619-621
Bahemuka, T. E. and Mubofu, E. B. 1999. Heavy metals in edible green vegetables grown along the sites of the Sinza and Msimbazi rivers in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Food Chem., 66: 63-66
Baker, A. J. M. 1981. Accumulators and excluders: Strategies in the response of plants to heavy metals. J. Pl. Nutr., 3: 643-654
Baker, A. J. M. and Brooks, R. R. 1989. Terrestrial higher plants which hyperaccumlate metallic elements. A review of their distribution, ecology and phytochemistry. Bio recovery, 1: 81-126
Baker, A. J. M., Reeves, R. D. and Mc Grath, S. P. 1991. In situ decontamination of heavy metal polluted soils
using crops of metal-accumulating plants. A feasibility study. In situ. Bioreclamation; (eds. R.L.Hinchee., and R.F. Olfenbuttel) Butterworth- Heinemann Boston.
Baker, A. J. M., Reeves, R. D. and Hajar. A. S. M. 1994. Heavy metal accumulation and tolerance in British populations of the metallophyte Thlaspi careulescens J. and C. Presl (Brasssicaceae). New Phytol., 127: 61-68
Bansal, R. L. Nayyar, V. K and Takkar, P. N. 1992. Accumulation and bioavailability of Zn, Cu, Mn and Fe in soils polluted with industrial waste-waters. J. Ind. Soc. Soil Sci., 40 : 796-799
Barman, S. C. and Lal, M. M. 1994. Accumulation of heavy metals (Zn, Cu, Cd and Pb) in soil and cultivated vegetables and weeds grown in industrially polluted fields. J. Environ. Biol., 15: 107-115
Birley, M. H. and Lock, K. 1999. Health and periurban natural resource production. Environ. Urbanisn., 10: 89-106
Blaylock, M. J., Salt, D. E., Slavik, D., Zakharova, O., Gussman, C., Kaoulnik, Y., Ensley, D. and Raskin, I. 1997. Enhanced accumulation of Pb in Indian mustard by soil-applied chelating agents. Environ. Sci. Technol., 31:860-865
Bowie, S. H. U. and Thornton, I. 1985. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, Kluwer Academic, Hingham, Ma.
Brallier Sara., Harrison., Robert, B., Henry Charles L. and Dongsen, Xue. 1996. Liming effects on availability of Cd, Cu, Ni and Zn in a soil amended with sewage sludge 16 years previously Water, Air and Soil Pollution, 86: 195-206
Brar. M. S., Malhi, S. S., Singh, A. P., Arora, C. L. and Gill, K. S. 2000. Sewage water irrigation effects on some potentially toxic trace elements in soil and potato plants in northwestern India. Can J. Soil Sci., 80: 465-471
Braude, G. L. and C, F. Jelinek. 1977. FDA’s position on municipal sludge application on agricultural land. Proc., June meeting, Amer. Soc. Agri. Engg., Raleigh, NC.
Brooks, R. R., Lee, J., Reeves, R. D. and Jaffre, T. 1977. Detection of nickel ferrous rocks by analysis of herbarium specimens of indicator plants. J. Geochem. Explor., 7: 49-57
Brown, S. L., Chaney, R. L., Angle, J. S. and Baker, A. J. M. 1994. Zinc and cadmium uptake by Thlaspi caerulescens and Silene cucubalis in relation to soil metals and soil pH. J. Environ. Qual., 23:1151-1157
Brown, S. L., Chaney, R. L., Angle, J. S. and Baker. A. J. M. 1995a. Zinc and cadmium uptake of Thlaspi caerulescens grown in nutrient solution. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 59: 125-133
Brown, S. L., Chaney, R. L., Angle, J. S. and Baker. A. J. M. 1995b. Zinc and cadmium uptake by hyperaccumulator Thlaspi caerulescens and metal tolerant Silene vulgaris grown on sludge-amended soils. Environ. Sci. Technol., 29: 1581-1585
Business Line 2005. Financial Daily from THE HINDU group of publications. Wednesday, Aug 31, 2005. Carey, J. 1996. Can flowers cleanse the earth? Business Week, Feb. 19, p. 54
Chandalia, S. B and Rajagopal, R. 1992. Environmental Perspectives of Chemical Industry : Socio-Economic and Technological Imperatives Chemical weekly India, May
Chaney, R. L, Malik, M., Li, Y. M., Brown, S. L., Angle, J. S. and Baker. A. J. M. 1997. Phytoremediation of soil metals. Curr. Opinions in Biotech., 8: 279-284
Hyper accumulator based phytoremediation of metal-rich soils. Fourteenth Annual Symposium. Current topics
in plant biochemistry, physiology and molecular biology.Will plants have a role in bioremediation? April 10-22, 1995. Columbia, Missouri. p. 33-34
Chigago, F. E., Smith, R. W and Shore, F. L. 1982. Environ. pollution (series B) 27: 31-36
Chonkar, P. K., Datta, S. P., Joshi, H. C and Pathak, H. 2000a. Impact of industrial effluents on soil health and agriculture- Indian experience: Part I- distillery and paper mill effluents. J. Sci. Industrial Res., 59: 350-361
Chonkar, P. K., Datta, S. P., Joshi, H. C and Pathak, H. 2000b Impact of industrial effluents on soil health and agriculture- Indian experience: Part II- tannery and textile industrial effluents. J. Sci. Industrial Res., 59: 446-454
Chonkar, P. K. 2004. Phytoremediation: A green cure for heavy metal contaminated soils. J. Ind. Soc. Soil Sci., 52: 357-373
Clarkson. 1990 quoted from Heavy Metal Toxicity, Updated: 06/12/2003 http://www.lef.org/
Cunningham, S. D. and Ow, D. W. 1996. Promises and prospects of phytoremediation. Pl. Physiol., 110:715-719
Cunningham, S. D., Anderson, T. A., Schwab, A. P. and Hsu, F. C. 1996. Phytoremediation of soils contaminated with organic pollutants. Adv. Agron., 56: 55-114
Datta, S. P, Biswas, D. R, saharan, N. Ghosh S. K and Rattan, R. K 2000. Effect of long term application of sewage effluents on organic C, bioavailable P, K and heavy metal status of soils and content of heavy metals in crops grown. J. Ind. Soc. Soil Sci., 48: 836-839
Duraisamy, V. P, Subramaniam, K. P, Chitdeshwari, T. and Singh, M. V. 2003 .Seasonal and temporal changes in heavy metal pollution in sewage and their impact on soil quality. In proceedings of International Conference on water and Environment (WE-2003). Environ. Pollut., pp108-119.
Dushenkov,V., Nandakumar, P. B. A., Motto, H. and Ruskin, I. 1995. Rhizofilteration- the use of plants to remove heavy metals from aqueous streams. Environ. Sci. Technol., 29: 1239-1245
Ebbs, S. D. and Kochian, L. V. 1997. Toxicity of zinc and copper to Brassica species: implications for phytoremediation. J. Environ. Qual., 26: 3 pp. 776-781
Ellen, G., Loon, J. W. and Tolsma, K. 1990. Heavy metals in vegetables grown in the Netherlands and in domestic and imported fruits. Z. Lebensm. Unters. Forsch., 190: 34-39
Entry, J. A., Vance, N. C., Hamilton, M. A., Zabowski, D., Watrud, L. S. and Adriano, D.C.1996. Phytoremediation of soil contaminated with low concentrations of radionuclides. Water, Air, and Soil Poll., 88: 167-176
Ernst, W. H. O. 1988. Decontamination of mine sites by plants: An analysis of the efficiency. p. 305-310. In Proceedings of the Conference on Environmental Contamination, Venice; CEP Consultants: Edinburgh, 1988.
Ewan. 1996. quoted from Life Extension: Heavy Metal Toxicity, http://www.lef.org/protocols/prtcls-txt/t-prtcl-156.html
FAO, 1979 . Soil Survey Investigations for Irrigation. FAO. Rome.
Farooq, M. Hans, R. K., Viswanathan, P. N. and Joshi, P. C. 1999. Health Hazard from Dry River Bed Agriculture. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 62 : 555-562
Flynn Kathleen. 1999. An overview of public health and urban agriculture: water, soil and crop contamination and emerging zoonosis. IDRC - Cities Feeding People Report 30.
Gabbrielli, R., Mattioni C. and Vergnano, O. 1991. Accumulation mechanisms and heavy metal tolerance of a nickel hyperaccumulator. J. Plant Nutr., 14: 1067-1080
Ganeshamurthy, A. N. 2007. Periurban horticulture: Characterization of the system and issues of sustainability. National Brain Storming Session on “Heavy metal pollution in periurban horticulture” Society for Promotion of Horticulture, 5 th April 2007, Bangalore.
Garai, T. K., Das, D. K. and sarkar, S. 2000. Proceedings of International conference on Managing National Resources for Sustainable Agricultural Production in 21 st century, New Delhi. February, 14-18 . Extended Summaries. 2: p306
Garg, V. K. and Totawat, K. L. 2005. Heavymetal accumulation, Movement and distribution in the soil profiles near Zinc Smelter Effluent Stream. J. Ind. Soc. Soil Sci., 53:141-144
Gupta, I. C. and Jain, B. L. 1992. Salinisation and Alkalisation of ground water pollution due to Textile hand processing Industries in Pali. Curr, Agri., 16: 59-62
Holdgate, M. W. 1979. A perspective of environmental pollution. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, 1979
Hossner, L.R., Loeppert, R. H., Newton, R. J., Szaniszlo, P. J. and Moses Attrep, Jr. 1998. Literature review: Phyto-accumulation of chromium, uranium, and plutonium in plant systems. Texas A and M University, College Station, Texas and Amarillo National Resource Center for Plutonium. Los Alamos, New Mexico, May 1998
Hyun, H., Chang, A. C., Parkar, D. R. and page, A. L. 1998. Cadmium Solubility and Phytoavailability in Sludge-Treated Soil: Effects of Soil Organic Carbon. J.Environ. Qual., 27: 329-334
Impens, R., Fagot, J. and Avril, C. 1991. Gestion des soles contamins parles metaux lourds. Association Francaise Inter prosessionnelle do Cd, Paris, Franse. 1991.
Jayabaskaran, K. J. and Sriramulu, U. S. 1996. Distribution of heavymetals in soils of various sewage farms in Tamil Nadu. J. Ind. Soc. Soil Sci., 44: 401-404
Jeevan Rao, K. and Shantaram, M. V. 1993. Chemical composition of urban solid wastes of Hyderabad and their use in agriculture. Ind. J. Environ. Prot., 13: 813-816
Johnson, D. E., Kienholz, E. W., Baxter, J. C.,. Spangler, E. and Ward, G. M. 1981. Heavy metal retention in tissues of cattle fed on high cadmium sewage sludge. J. Animal Sci., 52: 108-114
Jorgensen, S. E. 1979. Handbook of Experimental Data and Biological parameters. Pergamaon press, Oxford, pp. 589-615.
Joshi, H. C., Pathak, H., Chaudhry, A. and Kalra, N. 1996. Distillery effluent as source of plant nutrients. Fertil. News., 41:41-47
Karunyal, S., Renuga, G. and Paliwal, K. 1994. Effects of tannery effluent on seed germination, leaf area, biomass and mineral content of some plants. Bioresource Tech., 47: 215-218
Labunska, I., Stringer, R., Olefirenko, N., Brigden, K. and Santillo, D. 2001. Organic compounds and heavy metals detected in waste-waters and associated sediments collected in and around Cepruss pulp and paper mill, Kaliningrad area, Russia. GRL Technical Note 07/2001 Greenpeace Research Laboratories, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4PS, UK.
Lepp, N. W. 1981. Effects of Trace Metals on Plant Function. p 352.In: Effect of Heavy Metal Pollution on Plants. Lepp, N.W. (ed), Applied Science Publishers.
Lindsay, W. L .1979. Chemical Equilibria in soils. Wiley Interscience, New York
Lokeshwari, H. and Chandrappa, G. T. 2006. Impact of heavy metal contamination of Bellandur Lake on Soil
and Cultivated Vegetation. Current Sci., 91: 622-627
Ma Lenaqand and Rao, Gade N. 1999. Aqueous Pb Reduction in Pb-Contaminated Soils by Florida Phosphate Rocks. Water, air and soil pollut., 110:1-16
Malarkodi, M. R., Krishnasamy, R., Kumara Perumal and Chitdeshwari, T. 2007. Characterization of heavymetal contaminated soils of Coimbatore district in Tamilnadu. J. Agronomy., 6 : 147-151
Malla, R. and Totawat, K. L .2006. Effect of Municipal Sewage on Soil Properties and Chemical Build-up in Vegetable crops grown in Haplustepts of sub- humid Southern plains of Rajastan. J. Ind. Soc. Soil Sci., 54: 226-231
Maria Luisa de Esparza 1998. Health risk assessment due to waste-water use in agriculture. Pure and Appl. Chem., 70: 2295-2299
McGrath, S. P., Sidoli, C. M. D., Baker A. J. M. and Reeves, R. D. 1993. In: Integrated Soil Sediment Research: A basis for proper Protection. pp.673-676. Eijackers, H.L.P. and Hamers, T. (ed) Kluwer Academic publishers, Dordrecht.
Mench Michel J., Didier., Valerie L., Loffler Monika., Gomez Alain. and Masson Pierre.1994. In-Situ Remediation Study of Metal-Contaminated Soils with Emphasis on Cadmium and Lead . J. Environ. Qual., 23:58-63
Mitra, A. and Gupta, S. K. 1999. Effect of Sewage water irrigation on essential plant nutrient and pollutant element status in a vegetable growing area of Calcutta. J. Ind. Soc. Soil Sci,. 47: 99-105
Moffat, A. S. 1995. Plants proving their worth in toxic metal cleanup. Sci., 269:302-303
Mohanraj, R., Satishkumar, M., Azeed, P. A., and Sivakumar, R. 2000. Pollution Status of Wetlands in Urban Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India. Bull.Environ.Contam.Toxicol., 64: 638-643
Mohmed, A. and Ashanullah, K. 1985. Environmental Pollut. (Series A), 37: 131-148
Nanda Kumar, P. B. A., Dushenkov, V., Motto, H, and Ruskin, I. 1995. Phytoremediation- the use of plants to remove heavy metals from soils. Environ Sci. Technol., 29: 1232-1238
Nriagu. Jerome, O.1988. A silent epidemic of environmental metal poisoning Environ. Pollut., 50:139-161
Oliver, M. A. 1997. Soil and human health: a review. Eur. J. Soil Sci., 48: 573-592
Palaniswami, C. and Sriramulu, U. S. 1996. Effect of continuous irrigation with paper factory effluent on soil properties. J. Ind. Soc. Soil Sci. 42:139-140
Palaniswami, C. and Sreeramulu, U. S. 1994. Effects of continuous irrigation with paper factory effluent on soil properties. J. Ind. Soc. Soil Sci. 42: 139-140
Patel, K. P., Pandya, R. R., Maliwal, G. L., Patel, K. C., Ramani, V. P. and George, V. 2004. Heavymetal content of different effluents and their relative availability in soils irrigated with Effluent waters around Major Industrial cities of Gujarat. J. Ind. Soc. Soil Sci., 52:89-94
Patil, G. D. 1994. Characterization of spent wash/spent slurry-pressumd compost and their effects on yield, nutrient uptake by maize and soil properties. Ph.D. Thesis, M.P.K.V., Rahuri, Maharashtra
Pescod, M. B. 1992. Waste-water treatment and Use in Agriculture. FAO irrigation and Drainage paper. 47. Food and agriculture Organization of United Nations. Rome, p 125
P.F.A. 1954. Prevention of food adultration Act, 1954. with prevention of food adulteration rules, 1955. International Law Book Co. Delhi, 2003. pp 168-174
Pierzysnski, Gary., Sims, M., Thomas, J. and Vance George F. 2000. Soils and Environmental quality. 2 nd edition. CRC press. LLC, 2000 NW Corporate Blvd. Boca Raton. Florida
Rajesh Kumar Sharma, Madhoolika Agrawal and Fiona Marshall. 2007. Heavy metal contamination of soil and vegetables in suburban areas of Varanasi, India. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety, 66: 258-260
Raskin, I., Nanda Kumar, P. B. A., Dushenkov, S. and Salt. D. E. 1994. Bioconcentration of heavy metals by plants. Curr. Opinions in Biotech, 5: 285-290.
Rattan, R. K., Datta, S. P., Suresh Chandra. and Neelam Saharan. 2002. Heavy metals and Environmental quality. Indian Scenariao. Fertil. News., 47: 21-40.
Reeves, R. D. and Baker, A. J. M. 1984. Studies on metal uptake by plants from serpentine and non serpentine populations of Thlaspi goesingense Halacsy (Cruciferae). New Phytol., 98: 191-204
Roberts. 1999. Quoted from Heavy Metal Toxicity, Updated: 06/12/2003 http://www.lef.org Rouhi, A.M., 1997. Plants to the rescue. C and EN Washington pp. 21-23.
Sakal, R., Prasad, A. K. and Singh, A. P. 1992. Depth wise distribution of heavy metals in soils receiving sewage sludge. J. Ind. Soc. Soil Sci. 40 : 732-737
Sakthivel, M and Sampath, K. 1990. In: Environment and Experimental Technology. Deshmukh, P.B., Mathai, A.T., Dalela, R.C. and Pillai K.S. (ed.) Jai Research Foundation . Valvada. pp 139-150
Salt, D. E., Blaylock, M., Kumar, N. P. B. A., Dushenkov, V., Ensley, B. D., Chet, I. and Raskin, I. 1995. Phytoremediation: a novel strategy for the removal of toxic metals from the environment using plants. Biotechnol., 13: 468-474
Selvapathy, P., Sreedhar, P. 1991. Heavy metals removal by water hyacinth. J. Ind. Public Health Engg., 3, 11-17
Sharif Fazeli, M., Sathyanarayan, S., Satish, P. N. and Lata Muthanna. 1991. Effect of paper mill effluents on accumulation of heavy metals in coconut trees near Nanjangud, Mysore district, Karnataka, India. Environ. Geol., 17: 47-50
Shrivastava, P., Saxena, A. and and Swarup, A. 2003. Heavy metal pollution in a sewage-fed lake of Bhopal, (M.P.) India. Lakes and Reservoirs: Research and Management, 8:1–4
Singh, A. K., Gupta, P. L. and Agarwal, H. P. 2001. Chromium contamination of water resources and soils of carpet industrial area of Eastern Uttar Pradesh. J. Ind. Soc. Soil Sci., 49: 776-778.
Singh, R. R., Singh, Vinay. and Shukla, A. K., 1991. Yield and heavy metal content of berseem as influenced by sewage water and refinery effluents. J. Ind. Soc.Soil Sci., 39: 402-404
Singh, R. S. and Singh, R. P. 1994. Distribution of DTPA extractable Cd, Pb, Cr, Cu, Zn, Mn and Fe in soil profiles contaminated with sewage and industrial effluents. J. Ind. Soc. Soil Sci., 42 : 466-468.
Singh, S. P., Takkar, P. N and Nayyar, V. K. 1989. Effect of cadmium on wheat as influenced by lime and manure and its toxic level in plant and soil. Int’l J. Environ.Studies., 33:59-66
Sinha, A. K., Dasgupta, P., Chakrabarty, S., Bhattacharya., G. and Bhattacharjee, S. 2002. Bio accumulation of heavy metals in different organs of some of the common edible fishes of Kharkai River, Jamshedpur. Ind. J. Environ. Health., 44:102-107
Som, Shrabani., Gupta, S. K. and Banerjee, S. K. 1994. Assessment of the quality of sewage effluents from Howrah sewage treatment plant. J. Ind. Soc. Soil Sci., 42:571-575.
Srikanth, R., Rao, A., Madhumohan, S. K. Ch. and Khanum, Anees. 1993. Lead, cadmium, nickel, and zinc contamination of ground water around Hussain Sagar lake, Hyderabad, India. Bull. Environ.Contam. Toxicol., 50:138-143
Su Dc, wongJw. 2004. Selection of mustard oilseed rape (Brassica juncea L.) for phytoremediation of cadmium contaminated soil. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 72: 991-998.
Sumangala, H. P. and Varalakshmi, L. R. 2007. Evaluation of brassica species for phytoremediation of heavy metal polluted periurban soils. In: Proceedings of Second Indian Horticulture Congress. 18-21 April 2007. ICAR Complex for NEH region, Barapani, Shillong, Meghalaya.
Swaminathan, B. 1993. Environmental impact of fertilizer production in India. Fertil. News., 38: 43-48
The Environmental (Protection) Rules, 1986. Ministry of Environment, Government of India.
The Hindu, 2008. It is a hi-tech problem. 2nd February 2008.
Tiwana, N. S., Panesar, R. S., and Kansal, B. D. 1987. Proceedings of National Seminar on Impact of Environmental protection for future development of India. Nainital, 1:119
Totawat, K. L. 1991. Effect of Effluent from Zinc smelter on metalic cations in soil and crops in cropping sequence. J. Ind. Soc. Soil Sci., 39: 542-548
Totawat, K. L. 1993. Ground water pollution adjoining a smelter effluent stream. J. Ind. Soc. Soil Sci., 41: 804-806
Underwood, E. J. 1977. Trace Elements in Human and Animal Nutrition (4th Ed.). Academic Press, New York.
USEPA. 1991. Report 540/8-91/067. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC.
Vajpayee, P., Rai, U. N., Sinha, S., Tripathi, R. D. and Chandra, P. 1995. Bioremediation of tannery effluent by aquatic macrophytes. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 55: 546-553
Varalakshmi, L. R. and Ganeshamurthy, A. N. 2005. Heavy metal contamination in vegetables grown in periurban
Bangalore. In: Proceedings of National Conference on “Management of urban vegetation”. 23-24 September, Mumbai. pp 72-75
Varalakshmi, L. R. and Ganeshamurthy, A. N. 2007. Heavy metal content in sewage waters of periurban Bangalore. In: 10 th Inter-regional conference on Water and environment. October 17-20. NAAS, New Delhi. p. 24.
W.H.O. 1992. WHO Commission on Health and Environment. 1992. Report of the panel on food and agriculture. Geneva: WHO.
W.H.O. 1998. Book of abstracts: International Healthy Cities Conference, Athens (Greece), 20-23 June 1998. 172 p.
World Health Organisation (WHO) Regional Office for Europe, Scherfigsvej 8, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark; Municipality of Athens.
Wolverton, B. C. and McDonald, R. C. 1978. Bioaccumulation and detection of trace levels of cadmium in aquatic systems by Eichhornia crassipes Environ. Health Persp., 27:161-164
Zalawadia, S. M., Raman, S. and Patil, R. G. 1997. Influence of diluted spent wash of sugar industries application on yield of and nutrient uptake by sugarcane and changes in soil properties. J. Ind.Soc. Soil Sci., 45: 767-769
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2008 A N Ganeshamurthy, L R Varalakshmi, H P Sumangala (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Authors retain copyright. Articles published are made available as open access articles, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. 
This journal permits and encourages authors to share their submitted versions (preprints), accepted versions (postprints) and/or published versions (publisher versions) freely under the CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license while providing bibliographic details that credit, if applicable.
How to Cite
. 
